Pepsi’s Advertising History

I chose Pepsi because I decided it would be interesting to see how the company started out and what kinds of marketing strategies they used that makes them into the huge success story they are today. Here’s what I’ve discovered and it is quite an impressive story: In 1898, in North Carolina, a pharmacist named Caleb Bradham began experimenting with juices and spices and syrups looking for something to quench the thirst of his customers on some of the hot humid days. Low and behold before it was all said and done, he had invented the drink we know today as Pepsi-cola. It wasn’t until 1903 that Pepsi was patented and Bradhams first ever advertizing sell went along with his pharmacist concoction, â€Å"Exhilarating, invigorating, and aides indigestion.? He initially mixed the soda himself and distributed it through his soda fountain and then decided to bottle it so people could drink it anywhere. By 1909, the Pepsi bottle logo had been changed 3 times, 15 bottling plants had opened up, the slogan became, â€Å"The Original Pure Food Drink† and Pepsi was trade marketed in Mexico and Canada. Also by that time Mr. Bradham had gotten himself some of the best advertisement available at the time. He had a celebrity endorser for a race car named Barney Oldfield. Barry appeared in news paper ads describing Pepsi-cola as â€Å"a bully drink – refreshing, invigorating, a fine bracer for a race. † In 1920 Pepsi’s new motto was â€Å"Drink Pepsi-cola. It will satisfy you. † But by 1923, Bradham wasn’t worried about his motto or slogan; he was worried about the rising cost of sugar. So worried in fact that after it hit 26 cents per pound, he stocked up on it tremendously afraid it would go even higher and then it fell to an all time low of 2 cents per pound. By 1923, Bradham was bankrupt and then Pepsi –cola was sold off to Craven Holdings Corporation for $30,000. It was then sold to Roy C. Mega gel for $35000 and he formed the Pepsi Cola Company. It took until 1934 for Pepsi to come up with the best marketing idea yet. It began selling its 12 ounce bottles of soda for only 5 cents – the same price as the competitor’s 6 ounce bottle. 1939 brought a whole new look at the value of Pepsi. A cartoon strip, â€Å"Pepsi and Pete† introduced the theme â€Å"Twice as much for a nickel â€Å"to reinforce the huge value advantage of the soda Pepsi. By 1940 Pepsi makes nationwide history because their jingle†Nickle, Nickel† was broadcast nationwide and became a hit record. It was translated into 55 different languages. In1941 Pepsi wanted to support Americas War Efforts so it changed its bottles to red, white and blue. There also opened up a Pepsi Canteen place in Times Square, New York that operated all year long and enables more than 1 million families to record messages for armed service personnel overseas. Eventually in 1950 Pepsi was forced to raise its 12 ounce bottle prices to a competitive level so their slogan became â€Å"More Bounce to the Ounce† and the logo was changed again. As Americans became more weight conscious, Pepsi decided they would be a prime opportunity as a target market. That’s when â€Å"The Light Refreshment â€Å"and â€Å"Refreshing without filling† slogans came in. Pepsi went after another new target market in 1958 when the company decided it didn’t just want to be known as â€Å"the kitchen cola† because of it being considered such a bargain brand. Pepsi started identifying itself with the young, fashionable consumers using the new â€Å"Be Social, Have a Pepsi† slogan. A swirl was then added to the straight necked bottle of the past. In 1961 Pepsi saw the opportunity to further define its target market by recognizing the importance of the younger post-war generation. â€Å"Now its Pepsi, for those who think Young† defines youth as a state of mind. 1963 brought about one of the most significant phenomenon’s in commercial history because the post-war baby boomers emerged on society and in the market place. Pepsi took advantage of that change and made Pepsi the brand of the new generation – the Pepsi generation. † â€Å"Come Alive! You’re the Pepsi Generation† makes advertizing history. This will be the first time a product is identified by its consumer’s lifestyles and attitudes instead of its attributes. In 1964, Diet Pepsi was introduced and by 1966 it had its own campaign, â€Å"Girl Watchers† that focused on the cosmetic benefits of the low-calorie cola. The music to this new item became a tip 40 hit. When research indicated that consumers place very high regard on Pepsi’s superior taste when chilled, â€Å"Taste that beats the others cold. Pepsi powers on† emphasized Pepsi’s product superiority. When in 1973 our nation was involved in massive social and political change, Pepsi came up with â€Å"Join the Pepsi People, Feelin’Free: campaign. One People, many personalities. After Patriotism was sectored in the U. S. with the celebration of the bicentennial, American people looked to the future with optimism. â€Å"Catch the Pepsi Spirit† is the mood the Pepsi Generation took forward with it in the 80’s. The soft drink war had grown more competitive but for Pepsi it had already been won. : Pepsi Now! † explained it all. Partway through the 1970’s Pepsi came up with a marketing strategy that would become an international landmark in advertizing – The Pepsi Challenge. Consumer test after consumer test confirmed that more people preferred Pepsi over Coca-cola. That reality was made into advertising and made marketing history as well as gained market share for Pepsi. Pepsi also became the largest selling soft drink in super markets by the time the 80’s got here. When 1984 came along, a new generation had emerged- in the United States, around the world and in Pepsi advertizing, too. To make this new generation happy, Pepsi began with a new campaign containing Michael Jackson, the most popular entertainer in the world at the time, starring in the company’s first 2 commercials. These two were the most eagerly awaited advertizing of all time. The fact that during rehearsal Michael Jackson’s hair was actually set on fire accidentally did not diminish Pepsi’s popularity at all. After this the company’s publicity went to $3 million in worth. Even after Geraldine Farroro’s Pepsi ad fueled debates about the ethics of politicians doing commercials, Pepsi seemed untouched. Emanuel Goldman, a beverage analyst at Montgomery Securities in San Francisco forecasted that the growth for all Pepsi’s soft drinks in 1985 may match that of Coco-cola USA products, Pepsi’s biggest rival. In 1985 the front runners in the soft drink business were Coke – Pepsi – 7-up – and Dr. Pepper. Coke changed its product make-up but swears it never meant to emulate Pepsi. -up announces people are concerned about caffeine and other artificial ingredients so its ads will stress â€Å"It never had it, it never will†. People just don’t want traditional sugar any more. Soon Pepsi introduced Slice containing 10% fruit juice, Coke unveiled Cherry Coke and was testing Minute Maid Orange Juice at the time. 7-Up started revving up its ads for TV, sports cable, and MTV. Charles Schmidt, executive vice president said, â€Å"I think the changes in consumer taste, preferences and movements to brands that don’t have preservatives and artificial colors is right down our alley. Pepsi did have one marketing mistake that certainly didn’t boost sales or improve popularity when it comes to an advertisement. In 1989, Madonna starred in an ad that depicted her as a young woman and also as a young girl, flashing back and forth between dance scenes either at the young girls birthday party where she’s seen blowing out her candles and making a wish or as a young adult dancing among joyful gospel singers to the music of Madonna singing â€Å"Like a Prayer†. Over 250 viewers tuned in to see this hyped up ad that was the first ever to be seen on T. V. before being released over the radio or other venue. The ad went wonderfully as planned. Unfortunetly all did not stop there. Madonna had a release by the same name on her new album. The video was a far cry from the wholesome picture the ad left you with. Instead it was about a white woman being raped by a black man and Madonna holding a knife till it shows her hands with cuts that seem to represent Stigmata or Cruxification. This video aired one day after the Pepsi ad. The first person to make noise was the reverend of a Christian group called American Family Association and he threatened to have his 380,000 AFA subscribers boycott Pepsi until they dropped Madonna. Pepsi put a hold on the ad to see if things would blow over. But then a Catholic Bishop from Texas chimed in agreement to the offensive video and he threatened to boycott not only Pepsi, but it’s other corporate holdings also, such as Taco Bell, Pizza Hut, and Kentucky Fried Chicken. But the worst was still coming. The Pope then released a statement by the Vatican banning Madonna from appearing in Italy at all. Pepsi decided it was best to end this and they dropped Madonna like a bad habit and the ad was never run again, although it can still be viewed on You Tube. Even though Madonna still owed Pepsi 3 commercials that were never going to happen, Pepsi Paid her the original $5 million payment. This controversy that jeopardized Pepsi only shot Madonna’s record sales up to 13 million copies worldwide. As the 1990’s grew near, consumers wanted to continue to broaden their choices in beverages so Pepsi took that opportunity to broaden its product line and become a total beverage company. Pepsi‘s products would now include water, tea, coffee drinks, juice, juice drinks and the original soft drinks. Pepsi was also the first to come up with the idea of freshness dating, providing customers an easy way to read product freshness code. The Diet Pepsi can first appeared with the â€Å"best if used by† date and then it quickly became standard on all of Pepsi’s other products. Pepsi – now known as PepsiCo, Inc. has now joined forces with companies such as Tropicana in 1988, Quaker Oats Company in 2001 and still recently, Gatorade. In Feb. of 2010, Pepsi and Anhauser- Busch have teamed up to buy advertising such as network cable, print, and outdoor media. Today PepsiCo is a $29 million company employing over 150,000 people who speak 40 different languages. As I’ve tried to point out with all of this information, Pepsi is an amazing company with great marketing strategies and mixes and knows a great opportunity when it sees one. You can go back through my information and see that Pepsi hits on all 4 P’s –Product(s),which are still growing as we speak, Price – for instance the 12 ounce bottles for only 5 cents approach, Placement-Caleb Bradham knew he needed to put his product out there on the market and not kept it his pharmacy in order for it to prosper and Promotion – I’ve given you many, many wonderful inventive examples of how Pepsi promoted very successfully their first product all the way now to their last.

Bowl & Edward Maulthrop

Edward Maulthrop is one of the renown member of an artistic family of the Moulthrops. It is a dynasty of both the son, father and grandfather who have highly contributed to the sculptural wood world. This chain of the art fellows share a common vision and have a common procedure. This family is a representation of a three generation wood sculptures. For instance Edward was in his teenage years during the years of 1930s. Philip was a teenager at the years of 1970s. The present generation holds its central representation of the Moulthrop family through the youngster Matt who is believed to have just begun his career.Edward is believed to be and considered as the grandfather of wood turning. More often it was noted that he produced a body or pieces of work that meditated on one of the best forms of the lathe represented in a variety of works found in his home in the state of Georgia. These are some of the preoccupations that both Philip and Matthew Moulthrop use as the basis for their w orks. Edward has used a feature of curving wood referred to as wood turning. He begun turning immediately he put together cash he made from the delivering of magazines.He purchased his first lathe at a cost of $16. 95. Wood turning is a feature that can be achieved through use of lathe which gives a perfect three dimensional art forms. Lathe is a special material that gives an artist the powers to use a stationery blade for carvings. This gives a block of wood a beautiful, revolving and even attribute. During his carvings and especially the Bowl sculpture, Edward Moulthrop was trying to express some ideas in a crafty form. The Bowl is a contemporary form that he uses as a medium or channel for communicating his own ideas.The treatment given to the surface of this figure is magnificent and the rich concentration of beauty given to the local wood is a renowned work. Among the works exhibited at the Hauston Center for Contemporary Craft situated in Hauston Texas is Edward Moulthropâ₠¬â„¢s untitled Bowl. This work is a display of a unique yet capturing technique that is different from sculptures done by other wood artists. A renowned wood artist referred to as Christian Burchard, born in the year 1955, uses an also interesting technique.He turns through the walled vessels made from wood burls when the wood is still green that is wet and this makes the wood warp and crinkle as they dry. At this exhibition is a display of vessels that have warped according to different sizes. The exhibit achieves a dynamic attribute and places the frozen vessels in a motion. But the Untitled bowl is user oriented and captures attention of a viewer not only of its tantalizing beauty but its amazing size. The sculpture is huge to be precise. The sculpture is made from a Tulip Wood tree that must have been huge.It is made of grains that are carefully knotted making magnificent grain knots. There is a pattern of knots and burrows created all around the bowl. Seemingly Edward was leavi ng the viewer to have his own judgments of whatever representation the sculpture had. No wonder he has given the title†untitled bowl† to the piece leaving anyone wop0ndering whether this was a misappropriate title. At its non representational interpretation, the piece, is a mere vessel that is very beautiful and appealing to any viewer. The artist has used light to give the vessel even more life.The pattern-styled use of multithreaded beads all over the vessel gives it a tantalizing attribute and any art for art’s sake person would describe the piece as marvelous. Though the piece is given the unexplainable title, a closer look at the work gives the lower or the forefront of the sculpture a bowl figure. The use of line quickly drifts the attention of a viewer to the upper part of the sculpture. He has waved the sculpture to make interest of a viewer peruse or go through the entire piece. Though the sculpture is huge, the waviness given to it makes it smaller when analyzing it hence concentration is given to the entire work.It might be that Edward Maulthrop was having the representation of a human figure when designing the art work. And to him maybe a very powerful female figure. This is because the woman figure is represented as a wavy figure. The richness of rings used adds the attribute of beauty. The use of light represents the full life in this flexible and very beautiful female figure. There is a mixture of light and dark to bring out contrast in the art piece. But richness of beauty is still perceived through the fully filled sculpture having a nice pattern of rings all over it. References1. Rebecca S Cohen, Art Gudo Texas, 2004, University of Texas Press, ISBN 0292712308 2. Suzanne Hoebl, America’s Art Museums, 2002, W. W Norton, ISBN 0393320065 3. Erwin Ottomas Christen, A guide to Art Museums on the United States, 2006, Dodd Mxad 4. Julia Hurvey, Julie Abrams, Wooden Statues of the old Kingdom, 2001, BRILL,ISBN 9004123571 5. Maureen Matherson, Barbara Cooper, Barbara Rosen, World Museums Guide 1974, 1973, and MC-Graw hill Education-Europe. 6. R. R Bowker Company, American federation of Arts, American Art Directory, 1952, Jacques Cattel Press, R. R Bowker. .

Human Trafficking in Cambodia

Name: Chou David Class: Public Speaking Teacher: Kate Westbrook Assignment: Final Exam Human Trafficking Human trafficking is an illegal action that people kidnapped people to be their slavery of doing anything for money or their own good. It`s the possession or trading of humans for the purpose of engaging them in slavery and prostitution through the means of force. It’s the action that everyone is bewared of and scared of. It`s not just effect the victims but also their family, society, county and the world. Every single year the amounts of victims are increasing more and more.It`s a millions of dollars criminal which is the reason why there`re human trafficking. Human are victims every year and people who have heart do know that it`s one of the saddest things on Earth. So, have you had any relative who is the victim? Do you think that this action will ever stop? There`re many types of human trafficking. This means that they are all different. First, Women trafficking is a k ind of trafficking that people sale women as the costumer`s sex partner for money. They`re are not going to work at the same country that they used to lived because they`re going abroad to work in the sex industry.They`re not just the harm in sexual violence and rape but they were threat like the slavery. Normally, those slavery will work as waitress, refugee or prostitute for 20h/day. What cause this to be happening? Yes, because of the need of the traffickers who doesn’t really have money to manage their living situation. Also the parents whose sell their own daughter for the money to survive. But some of them might think that if their daughter still live with them, the baby or daughter will not survive and make them of selling the daughter out of the family`s bad economic issue.The lack of sex knowledge, awareness, and the percentage of illiteracy made this issue happens. This issue leads to the risk of LIFE. It leads the HIV wide-spread more and more. And also will be a b ig threat for the increasing amount of suicides. Second, Men trafficking for labor forces. This kind of trafficking is a serious problem that the international effort is underway to acknowledge and combat this situation. The majority of those victims are adult from 18-44 which has the full strength for labor forces. They were used in the purposes of criminal activities and begging.They were used to work for commonly 12 hours and more. They were threat like slavery and they were feed only one time per day. This makes the kill rate of men increase faster and faster. Since it`s a low-risk business for trafficker because they are not dealing with merchandise. It`s lower risk than drugs or weapons. Those men told themselves to fight but they can’t because they must be killing if they riot. The victim or slavery was threat like animal that they called it nightmare. The rate was increase 6% every year. The third and last type is children trafficking.How crazy they were that treat ch ildren like this? They use them to be the foreign attracter by selling normal things with unusual prize or by being beggars, children in arm force, or can be in the drug trades. Do those kids deserve better? Yes, they do. They deserve to be one of us that can stand here and study for knowledge. If there`re children trafficking, this results the end of a future. This one is an unsolvable issue that no one could think of since it starts. It results as permanent injury or death. So, what do you think about the tears of family?But some of the family sale their own kid to the trafficker to earn money to survive too. The kids will be cut off their legs or arms to look more pity that they can beg more money. If they don’t do the same thing that the trafficker said, they`ll be dead. It effects the whole life, community and the nation. What cause all of these to be happen? The biggest factor is the economic factor that I mention that it is a lower-risk high profit business. The Lack o f access to education and information. A lack of public awareness of the dangers of trafficking.The high profit potential for those engaged in the criminal activity. Gender discrimination. A lack of effective anti-trafficking legislation. These are the main causes or reasons that there`re human trafficking still exist nowadays. But how does it effect to our life? Human rights issue, Health Concerns, Equality did exist but the problem is unsolvable. So, the effects are growing more and more. The illness will widespread like HIV does. Not only HIV but others will be growing like never before. The effect to the family is a shame problem.Some family will just accept the welcome back of victims who can escape but some still think that daughter or girl who is particularly sexual exploitation will bring shame to family. So, some children who are able to escape may return home only to find that they`re rejected from the family. On another hand, the community will also taken effects of human trafficking. Children trafficking are shown to be the major effect on communities. If children are trafficked, it`ll be result that the community is corrupted or failed to protect the members.As a result, children who can escape will be lack of education that they`re less able to secure a job. Also the girls who can escape will be a difficult thing for a marriage because they bring the shame of being prostitute before. The next one is the effect to the whole nation. It results in the lost of potentially future workers. Why? Yeah, because of the injuries, illness and lack of education. And they were doing criminal activity which associate with the drugs and violent that harm the whole nation. So, it`s now known as a significant indicator of national and global security threats.Anyway, there`re ways to stop it if and only if , we join forces together in one to make sure that this will never ever happen again. One question is how? The answer is the plan that governments around the wor ld use. First, the prevention. Bringing up more of the law and educated lessons about human trafficking. Teach people not to be meant or being idiot to trafficked either children or adults. To prevent this we also need to enforcement the law by giving more punishment to trafficker and make them scared of law. Fortunately, the law enforcement of anti-trafficker is working on by the UNICEF.The project of victim assistant which begins first with the victim`s identification. It`s a project that will make sure that the children that escape the cage of nightmare will return home or other appropriate settings which means that they`re taking good care of and will never be re-trafficked again. Child or woman who is illegally trafficked and illegally work as a prostitute will be treating like a victim not the criminal. Finally, the things that I mentioned were about the cause, effects, types of human trafficking and the way to end it.U~N, UNICEF, US Department and more organizations are worki ng on this issue and will find a perfect prevention to this issue. So, I would like all of you to widespread the information to places. If you find out something unusual, you can contact to government, organizations, or the police. If you could think of a solution then you can help with that idea. Especially your idea could work for communities and nations. BEING VICTIM OF TRAFFICKING IS SLAVERY and SLAVERY WILL END SOONER OR LATER!!! Human Trafficking in Cambodia | | |Human Trafficking in Cambodia | | | | | | | | |Table of Contents 1. Introduction 1. 1 What is Human Traffiking ? 1. 2 Objective of studying ? 2. What cause Human Trafficking? 2. 1 The linkage between Migration and Human Trafficking ? 2. 2 Push factor and Pull factors 2. 3 Education 3. Propose solutions Human Trafficking 3. 1 Strenghen the Law 3. 2 Job Skill Traning For Shleter Victims 3. 3Provide Well Educated to People 4 Conclusion. 5. ReferenceIntroduction 1 What is human trafficking? Before delving into the paper, it is necessary to first understand the concept of human trafficking. â€Å"Human trafficking† is mainly defined as the illegal trade of human beings for the purpose of commercial sexual exploration or reproductive slavery. Human trafficking is considered as modern day slavery and it has increased dramatically over the year and it almost occurs at everywhere.It kind of recruitment, transportation, harboring, or taking of persons by means of threat, force, coe rcion, or deception for the purpose of exploiting them, or other form of sexual exploitation, or practice similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs. Today there are many forms of human trafficking;  victims are forced to work in homes, factories, fishing boats, or in agriculture fields, for employers that keep them virtually imprisoned. Some are forced into sexual servitude, while others must beg on the streets for asking some money from walker along the street.Many victims [1]‘’are tricked, thinking they are receiving a legitimate job opportunity, only to find themselves trapped and unable to leave an exploitive situation. Others are simply bought and sold like property. They are children, women, and men – of all ages. Most of them have no way to ask for help to back home. (Naro, S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, 2009)’’ 1. Objective of the studying This study seeks to examine whether existing efforts made by the govern- ment and NGOs are sufficient in helping the victims, by examining the following questions: †¢ what are the particular needs of the victims? Has the reintegration process been successful? †¢ what more can the Cambodia government, NGOs and private sector can do to help the victims? What Causes Human Trafficking? 1 The linkage between Migration and Human Trafficking [2]According to Marshall (2001), trafficking is linked to irregular migration, Sometime it happens in destination counties where an increasing number of women in particular become victims to various kinds of abusive, exploitative, and irregular forms of migration associated with trafficking. It is also known as â€Å"blind migration† and the flow of migration from such created the risk of trafficking.The relationship between human trafficking and migration has been the trend of migration that link victims vulnerability to human trafficking when they are isolated from their homes and families. 2 Push Factor and Pull Factor Poverty is an importance factor which has increase women and children’s vulnerability to human traffickers- particularly the poor and the unemployed due to their willingness to join or their low level of awareness on the dangers associated with human trafficking. The Chen Chen Lee reported in 2007 showed that the interviewees cited poverty as one of the main drivers behind their decision to migrated overseas for work. ccording to researcher claims that, the low level of education, family debt, agricultural failure, lack of land and off season work were pushing people to the big cities or to other countries as the men go to instruction, women into service and prostitution. In addition to poverty, the lack of education and unemployment there also significant social and cultural variables that contributes to human trafficking. For instance, cultural norms that perpetuate a lack of respect for women increase the likelihood of them being exploited.Poverty, broken families, landlessness, disasters, uneven economic development, relaxation of border controls, economic inequality between the rural and urban areas are also significant contributing factors to human trafficking. According to the International Organization for migration, based in Phnom Penh, in 2004 the pull factor connected to the push factor whereby people became disillusioned with their community due to extreme poverty. The pull factor is the expectation that destination countries are places better than their impoverished communities and there migrants can earn more money for remittances back home.Thus, it seen that the root causes are push and pull factors through which people who wish to seek jobs for a better living on became victim of human trafficking as well. 3 Education Low education levels contributed to higher poverty levels. Most of the trafficked victims were illiterate for families and communities, One crucial way to increase economic growth would be to emphasize the importance of education as a significant human resource development ( in term of specific skills), thereby aid in alleviating poverty.The education levels of trafficked victims also reflected the national distribution. This therefore illuminates the significant role that the Cambodian Ministry of Education should play for the betterment of the whole country. According to the Ministry of planning, a child can be safe from illiteracy if he or she has completed at least till the fourth or fifth grade if their studies. Nevertheless, a higher education level is needed to ensure a better employment prospects in the future.As stipulated in the Cambodia government’s National strategy plan, Education is the main human resource development factor in helping to alleviated poverty and increase economic growth potential Proposed Solutions Human Trafficking 1 Strengthen the Law Government should play a greater role in encouraging the private sector to work together with NGOs. Insurance cos ts and payment to trainees are currently covered by NGOs. At the end of training period the company is required to accepted the victims as employees. Most importantly, the government, NGOs and private sector must collaborate with one other.Presently NGOs have provided shelters to conduct skill training. The government can thus propose to the private sector to engage in corporate social responsibility by providing support to the victims in term of financial and job vacancies. The benefits for employers would be better skilled workers and their contribution to corporate social responsibility. The Government should put a serious law and fine them in a big amount of money to the trafficker who commits this crime in order to make them scare to commit it again in the future.Not only ordinary people who accepted this law it also apply for the authority power as well. When the law in one society is strong it can reduce the crime of human trade step by step. And it’s not really hard f or government to control it as well. 2 Job skill training for sheltered Victims: NGOs have been conducting rehabilitation programs to provide skills training and employment to ensure that victims can access various options for income generation after reintegration within their families, communities or workplaces. Table:1 Vocational |Female |Male |Job |Female |Male | |Training | | |Expectation | | | |Sewing |75% |29% |Garment |38% |21% | | | | |worker | | | |Electronics |0% |7% |Electronics |0% |7% | | | | |repairer | | | |Beauty salon |25% |0% |Beauty |25% |0% | | | |salon shop | | | |Hair cutting |0% |21% |Baber shop |0% |21% | |Car repairer |0% |7% |Car Repairer |0% |7% | |Motor repairer |0% |36% |Motor repairer |0% |36% | |English literature |25% |29% |Tailor shop |38% |7% | |Khmer literature |88% |29% |Total: |16 |14 | |Total: |16 |14 | | | |The reintegration programs provide victims with the ability to deal with stigmatization, acquire job skills and employment, health care, ed ucational support, as well as food and accommodation. The skills training plays a very importance role and it is through the crucial concept of reintegration that victims can access potential employment for better living and income conditions, It’s also a vital part helping them before being placed back in their workplaces or halfway house for victims who wish to be self-employed as well as family communities. 2. Provide well Educated to people As mentioned earlier, most of the victims possess low of education.Educations is the main human resource development component needed to improve Cambodia’s potential for economic growth. Education should be presented to the young generation in such a way that low educated is linked to issued related to poverty and other negative consequences to life and household income in the future. According to the National Economic Development (NED) policy document 2001-2005, the root cause of poverty was the result of poverty. Education sho uld also include job orientations that apply in parallel with the present job market needs, especially for those living in rural areas. The governments also play an important role in improving job opportunity. The currently rate of job creation does not support the increasing labor supply. 50,000 to 175,000 people join the labor force annually and this is expected to increase to over 200,000 by 2010 (United Nation Inter-Agency Project on Human Trafficking in the Greater Mekong Sub-region UNIAP ,2008). [3]However, according to Dr. Chap Sothearith Director of the Cambodia Institute for Cooperation and Peace, the demand for local construction labor demand is increasing in recent years. Rural Cambodia have unfortunately not realize this opportunity due to lack of information. Given this, it is therefore imperative for the government to work with the private sector, NGOS and local communities to disseminate information to the people via television, radio, council communities and villager s in order to reach out the rural and vulnerable job seekers and it also like to encourage them to start new life and dismiss what the past is. ConclusionFor my opinion it’s not easy to stop or eliminated human trafficking in one society but we can do it step by step. Government should provide good education to them to get know how to secure their life from the middle person in community. The human trafficking issues is a humanities issue which usually occurs in backward countries where it involves the poor exploited by those who initially promised income if they been accepted for work place and in accordance with the sector and where they live and narrowness needed. The poor usually have complex financial problems, and this makes them willing to place themselves in anywhere without investigating the background and basic information that what will be their job.Furthermore, they are also lack of knowledge because ignorance about their rights and the importance of understanding how to defend themselves from deceived cause they are unable to get out when hit by this problem. At the same time also, they are lack of exposure, and they are more easily cheated. Thus, measures the best solution is comprehensive, especially the involvement of government in formulating and drafting laws that can protect people from falling prey to problems. Moreover, the involvement of NGOs’ in helping the government solve this problem is appropriate and timely because the NGO’s can carry out the duties that can’t be carried out by Government.This issue will only be done if all the emphasis and direct assistance whether in terms of moral and financial, and suggestions with combating this commercial crimes. References http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Human_trafficking http://biusvspa. blogspot. com/2011/03/conclusion. html. http://cambodia. usembassy. gov/011912_pr. html http://www. rsis. edu. sg/publications/WorkingPapers/WP181. pdf ———â₠¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€œ [1] Neth Naro 29 June 2009 ( S Rajatnam School of International Studies) www. rsis. edu. sg/publications/WorkingPapers/WP181. pdf [2] Marshall, P ( Globallization, Migration and Trafficking in women and children in the Mekong Sub-region ) 8-10 May 2001 Kuala Lumpur [3] UNIAP (2008) SIREN Human Trafficking : (strategic Information Response Network, phase III. March 2008 (v. 1. 0) Cambodia.

Advertising and Promotion in Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Advertising and Promotion in Business - Essay Example Marketing Communications creates and oversees interfaces with press/news, e.g., calendars press meetings, deals with a publication logbook to arrange situations, and so on. Marketing Promotion then again is the improvement of particular advancements to offer items, hold customers, and get new customers. Marketing Promotion processes make the special battles and advertising to achieve the business sector, customers and channels. They create the crusades and security, whether standard mail, daily paper advertisement, and so on. Marketing Promotion processes work with all different processes of Marketing, Sales and Offer, Brand Management, Market Research and Advertising Management to plan marketing advancements and advertising, to focus exchange show interest and vicinity, to help item presentations, and so forth. One of the key parts of these processes is to position the item in the business, particularly versus aggressive items (Process Type Marketing Communications & Promotion, n.d.). EACA: The European Association of Communication Agencies; the mission of EACA is to symbolize the media and full administration advertising organizations and organization affiliation all around the Europe. The primary intention is to advertise successful and genuine advertising, exclusive expectations and expert advertising and consciousness of advertising in free economy market. It additionally helps to energize the nearby relationship and co-operation among media, offices and promoter. PMC: The Promotional Marketing Council; the principle targets of PMC are to serve deals advancement industry in their improvement all around Europe, help to keep up the expert picture for the business, it likewise support to advertise quality by giving yearly container European honors to industry and additionally supports the organizations for cross-outskirt notice and special action to the deals and comprehension the need of diverse

Banking Secrecy Laws Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Banking Secrecy Laws - Essay Example The article talks about the evil practice of evading taxes and the topic has been narrowed down by the author and primarily focuses upon the citizens of Switzerland. There are about 52000 American depositors who have intentionally hidden some information regarding tax evasion with the help of their Swiss Bank accounts, the Swiss authorities are known for their secrecy and this is a double edged weapon and it is certainly proving out to be that way. The US government is putting extreme pressure on the Swiss government to provide them with information of the American citizens who have Swiss bank accounts. The US government has even launched a civil suit in Miami to get access to this pivotal information. The US government firmly believes that the American citizens have hidden their potential worth of about $ 14.8 billion in various Swiss bank accounts and recently a Swiss bank by the name UBS provided information important information to the US authorities of as many as 250 US citizens who have their bank accounts with the bank. The Swiss government is trying really hard to implement a tax system which will complement their secrecy but this has not been implemented yet. The French president has also got involved in this and he recently said that Switzerland would be put in a black list of the G-20 members for being a tax- haven nation.

Nature of perception Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Nature of perception - Essay Example This is because people of different background and orientation have to work together towards certain goals. Therefore an understanding of behaviour as displayed by individuals will help ensure that work is done with less friction and in turn increase workers productivity and effectiveness. Managers, by the proper use of this analytic tool can develop good working relationships with their subordinates when the outcome of the analysis is applied. In truth this analysis is largely psychological with the motive to understand human behaviour. A proper understanding of human behaviour in organizations produces an environment wherein the employees carry out their duties efficiently and naturally too. An improper understanding on the other hand produces an environment where employees do only work assigned to them without discretionary inputs from them. While most managers believe that behaviour is a resultant effect arising from inherent personality traits and motivation, it may be accurate to say that behaviour is a function of the work environment that encompasses leadership styles, management systems, social environment not forgetting workplace facilities and tools. The perception of many managers is that personality controls the behaviour, but it is important to note that there is a distinction between "who a person is" and "what a person does" because it creates a moral burden where an employee does not perform and this non-performance is erroneously attributed to his personality. There are various definitions and interpretations for inherent personality traits, a situation that makes it imperative to objectively define behaviour in terms observable features. It reduces the complexities involved in dealing with personality issues and helps keep focus on the processes and their outcomes. A lot of ease is experienced via this approach because attention is slotted to problem identification and solution, a case in which employees are more relaxed to discuss issues more objectively. On the other hand things are made more complex when the focus is on changing an employee's personality and motivation. A positive approach to perception in the behaviour analysis field is to focus more on the performance on employee by superiors. This is best viewed from the angles of the work processes and results. Managers that involve their subordinate in talks about the line of direction of an organization and listens to them before taking actions and up being well liked. A healthy work environment is promoted in this atmosphere. It is very important to understand the reasons why employees behave in certain views. This understanding ultimately aids in the quiet to change consequences translating also in behavioural changes. A proper application of this understanding will help improve performance and yet enhancing cordial relations in the process. Negative approaches that include constant nagging and reminders will only produce. Superficial changes that do not stand the test of time. Furthermore the wrong perception by employers or superiors breeds mediocrity as a result of organizational barriers like poor management and leadership practices. The fact that perception

Impact and Meaning of the Gnostic Movement Research Paper

Impact and Meaning of the Gnostic Movement - Research Paper Example This research will begin with the statement that the Gnostic Movement was a Christian religious movement where an extended base of knowledge from the pagan and the scriptural sources formed the path to salvation leading to the divine personality Jesus Christ. This movement identified and stressed on â€Å"gnosis† or knowledge as the medium for achieving salvation. Sometimes it has also invested knowledge itself with the stature of salvation. The proponents of the Gnostic movement mainly operated in ancient Alexandria and exerted their influence on the Christian inhabitants of that region during the middle of the second century. The movement was mainly pioneered by Basilides, Valentinus, and Hearcleon living in the city of Alexandria during 130-180 CE. Till the advent of the Gnostic Movement, Christianity was a religion based on the fundamental ways of life as preached by Jesus Christ and Paul. The Gnostic proponents provided many unique insights into the religious faith and Ch ristianity assumed the form of a philosophical religion that could deal with serious moral and intellectual issues. The members of the Gnostic religious movement hailed from different backgrounds. Majority of the Gnostics were Christians while some members were of Jewish origin and some others belonged to the Greco-Roman race. The Mandaean members originated from Iraq and Iran while the Manichaean gnostics hailed from â€Å"Europe, the middle east, northern Africa and China†. Besides, the movement included Muslim Gnostics from the Islamic world and the Cathars hailing from Western Europe. The Gnostic Movement The term â€Å"Gnosis† in the Greek language means â€Å"knowledge†. In the context of the Gnostic movement, it refers to the knowledge regarding the spiritual world. The knowledge of the direct experience

Discussion for online HRM Healthcare class Essay

Discussion for online HRM Healthcare class - Essay Example The result of the study was that health care professionals act in a professional manner because of their professional consciousness. The study even figured out that the main reason due to which individuals of the health care are de-motivated is because they fail to satisfy their professional consciousness. They quit their jobs because of lack of required resources and inappropriate application of tools of human resource management. The study proved that a major role in the retention of health care professionals such as nurses is played by incentives that are not monetary in nature. The study even proved that if human resource management is properly applied, nursing professionals will become motivated. Proper application includes: helping health care professionals develop their career and recognizing and rewarding nurses for the professionalism they have shown towards their profession. Work environment is required which will help promote wellbeing of the workers. Mathauer, I., & Imhoff, I. (January 01, 2006). Health worker motivation in Africa: the role of non-financial incentives and human resource management tools. Human Resources for Health, 4

Two topics to choose from Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Two topics to choose from - Research Paper Example However, although each of these factors are salient and must be considered, the fact of the matter is that the degree and extent to which media consolidation has taken place within the past several decades is, at least within the mind of this author, the greater threat. Moreover, media consolidation cannot be understood merely through the lens of but a few news organizations representing the news to the citizen; rather, it must be understood as but a handful of media moguls controlling any and all information concerning global and/or regional politics. Such a situation is necessarily dangerous and diminishes the degree and extent to which the citizen is able to make an informed decision concerning the events that are taking place in the world around them. Further, it is the belief of this author that the narrowing of the media and the consolidation that has taken place within this past several decades has created situation by which but a few media conglomerates control upwards of 85% of newsprint and television media within the nation. When one considers the case of radio, the percentage is somewhat smaller; however, massive media firms such as Clear Channel are not far behind this troubling figure. Beyond merely creating a situation in which corporate interests are directly translated to the viewer by powerful companies, this narrowing and consolidation of the media also presents a situation by which the government could potentially find it quite easy to influence upon the way that a particular story and/or stories are related to the viewer/listener/reader (Stoll, 2006). Due to the fact that powerful corporations operate in close cooperation with the government (seeking to leverage tax breaks, contracts, and further competitiveness), the ease by which the government could offer a particular benefit to one of these firms and present the news in a particular way is profound and troubling. Evidence of this has recently been noted by the way in which the New York Times has reported on a litany of different stories and oftentimes briefs the administration prior to printing any of these scoops (Kawashima, 2011). Although it is unfair to target the New York Times alone, such a practice is not constrained to this media entity. Naturally, the call of national security is oftentimes leveraged as a means of stating why the press should confer with the administration and/or government prior to reporting on a particular story, a situation by which the press and the media operates in direct conjunction and cooperation with the government is the complete inverse of what the founding fathers initially prescribed within the First Amendment. A host of recent studies indicates that the American populace is becoming less and less informed with regards to global issues. Although it is not fair to blame been narrowing of media and/or the consolidation that is been experienced over the past several decades, it is fair to state that these realities have not hel ped to broaden the understanding that Americans have with regards to a particular news story or item of importance. In short, what can be understood by the reader is the fact that a free press

Rheta Childe Dorr Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Rheta Childe Dorr - Research Paper Example The piece concluded, â€Å"The law of the sea: women and children first. The law of the land—that’s different.†3 However, she is most notes for her books based on her eyewitness reports as a war correspondent making over nine trips to Europe. Her works include, What Eight Million Women Want (1910); Inside the Russian Revolution_ (1917); A Soldier's Mother in France (1918); the autobiography, A Woman of Fifty (1924); and the Life of Susan B. Anthony: The Woman Who Changed the Mind of a Nation (1928). Dorr went beyond fighting for women’s rights in the workplace; she also sought to find equality in the political arena as well. In an extremely critical 1910 argument against sexual biases of the law she wrote her book, What Eight Million Women Want. In this book, Dorr described the political reality of custody law and argued that both men and women should have equal standing in custody of the children. Dorr did not believe women were the only ones who could ca re for the children in defense of joint custody that would allow women to work. She reported that the year before, a bill to equalize guardianship and argued that if wives "had the guardianship of their children, would anything prevent them from taking the children and leaving home? What would become of the sanctity of the home, with its lawful head shorn of his paternal legitimacy. Such contentions stymied legislative reform.†4 In the introduction of this same book, she reiterates this point stating â€Å"They are no longer wholly dependent, economically, intellectually, and spiritually, on a ruling class of men.†5 Dorr argues that child rearing is not a reason for women to stay at home as men also could take responsibility for the raising of the children. What Dorr saw was the inevitable role women would... This research paper discusses the Progressive Era when women were starting to find their voice and break traditional boundaries. The researcher focuses on the discussion of Rheta Childe Dorr, who is most commonly associate with the suffrage movement, but her ethical writings should not be overlooked. Many of her writings as a journalist were directed at women asking them to become involved these social reforms because it was their ethical and moral obligation to get involved. As an example, Rheta Childe Dorr told readers they must insist upon a support system to help the courts deal with juvenile delinquency. "You have established the theory of a court, but you have failed to provide the machinery through which the theory can work." Dorr’s writing was reflective of the typical muckracker style in that she addressed reform issues in the workplace that were published. For example, the researcher describes how Rheta Childe Dorr chose â€Å"Women and Children First† as the title for her 4 May 1912 Woman’s Journal article on the exploitative nature of a Brooklyn sweatshop. However, she is most notes for her books based on her eyewitness reports as a war correspondent making over nine trips to Europe. It is concluded by the researcher that even though she did not receive the recognition she was due during her lifetime, there is no doubt she was influential in the woman’s movement and helped break barriers that would open doors for women who followed in the field of journalism after her.

Creative Writing with Photo Inspiration Essay Example for Free

Creative Writing with Photo Inspiration Essay

The Origins and beliefs of Shia and Sunni Islam Essay Example for Free

The Origins and beliefs of Shia and Sunni Islam Essay During the first 30 years after the Prophets death Muslims were governed by four khalifahs who were outstanding men chosen by the community for their closeness to the Prophet and their good characters. They were unselfish, tolerant, and well versed in the Quran, and they had been the Prophets dearest friends. They had learned from him all his ways and attitudes. These first four khalifahs were known as the Rashidun or rightly-guided or orthodox. The word khalifah means successor. Instead of living like princes, they lived very simple lives as the Prophet had done, in close touch with the people. They were renowned for their ragged and torn clothing, and their refusal to take any luxuries for themselves. Khalifahs were the most important people in the Muslim state, but were horrified if anyone started to think of them as kings they were simply servants. Only God was King. The first khalifah was Abu Bakr, who ruled from 632-4 CE. Before he died he elected Umar to be the next khalifah. Ali and his supporters thought this was wrong, but refused to bear a grudge. Umar ruled from 634-44 CE, after being stabbed (by Firuz, a Persian slave) six times in the back whilst he was praying. Uthman was the next khalifah to be elected, after Ali had refused the position. He was a kind and gentle man, but tended to elect many friends and relatives to key positions. When he was 80 many Muslims, particularly the supporters of Ali, thought that he should abdicate, but he refused to do so. Soon afterwards, while Uthman was at prayer, he was killed by a group of angered Egyptians. He had ruled from 644-56 CE. Finally, 24 years after the Prophets death, the khalifate passed to Ali. He ruled from 656-61 CE. He was famous for his extreme piety and faithful transmission of the Prophets sayings. His supporters thought of him as the Conscience of Islam. Alis appointment as khalifah was opposed by Uthmans cousin Muawiya, who was supported by the Prophets surviving wife, Aishah. Muawiya and Aishah demanded avenge for the murder of Uthman, but Ali didnt grant this. There was a battle, the Battle of Siffin, where Muawiya and Ali agreed on peace, but somehow Ali had been tricked and Muawiya was announced as khalifah. A group of Muslims, the Kharijites, were so outraged by the incident decided to end the impurity by killing them both. Some people felt right from the beginning that Ali should have been the Prophets successor. They were not content to see power going into the hands of the old chief family of Makkah which had so recently persecuted them and had always been jealous of the power of the Prophet. They claimed that the Prophet had always trained Ali to take over. Ali deputized for the Prophet in his lifetime and was the father of the Prophets grandsons. They claimed that those who had elected Abu Bakr insisted he was the Prophets choice, and was the senior male Muslim leader. However, the supporters of Ali still felt the khalifate should have stayed in the line of the Prophet and Khadijah, and now that Fatimah and Ali were dead, they insisted the next leader should be Alis son Hasan. Muawiya would not agree, and in the end Hasan came to an understanding that the khalifate would revert to his family only after Muawiyas death. However, when Hasan died (some claim he was poisoned) Muawiya made his own son Yazid the heir. Those who supported the Prophets descendants became known as the Shiat Ali or Party of Ali. They are now called Shiites. They refused to accept the first three khalifahs and claimed Ali was really the first, followed by the Prophets grandsons Hasan and Husayn. Shia Muslims believe that leadership (the position of khalifah) should be exclusive to the family of the Prophet. Sunnah is the Arabic word for custom or authority, and Sunni Muslims regard themselves as the true followers of the Sunnah or Way of the Prophet. They insist that the Prophet had intended elections so that the best man would succeed, and not to start a family line of rulers, like Kings. Sunnis are the major branches of Islam. About 90 percent of Muslims are Sunni. They base their standards of their faith on the Quran plus the Hadiths of the Prophet and the laws based upon them. They believe that leadership should be decided by a democratic election based on a majority vote. The Shiites, on the other hand, are a smaller group around 10 percent of modern Muslims but with a tendency to devotion that borders on fanaticism. The number of Shiite Muslims is increasing as people in many developing countries are reacting against the decadence of the modern world. Shiism is the state religion of Iran, and is rapidly increasing in strength in Pakistan, Iraq, India, the Yemen and the Lebanon. A summary of the principal teachings and aims of the Ayatollah Khomeini Islam to Ayatollah Khomeini is the noble warriors religion. It is of those who seek justice and righteousness, demand independence and liberty, and struggle to prevent the unbeliever as well as the tyrant from exercising power over the Muslim. He believes Islam is not just a code which governs the moral conduct of an individual, but also a set of rules and regulations which provide for every need and all requirements. He considers the introduction of the modern education, the adoption of constitutional parliamentary systems of government, and the promotion of Westernised criminal codes as nothing but deliberate means to undermine Islam, by encouraging the faithful to abandon their religion. Khomeini calls on the Muslims to emulate the example of the Prophet and the first three Imams. He demands their transformation into holy warriors to save Islam from the dangers confronting the religion. He encourages his students, as the new soldiers, to believe that theirs is a total system and to reject the notion that there is a similarity between Islam and Christianity. Khomeini thinks that Muhammad, and Imam Ali, were preachers, rulers, and administrators. He believes in succession, and also in the necessity of appointing a successor to the Prophet. The successor must be a preacher and a jurist, and must ensure the obedience of the community to the Quran. To conclude, Khomeini states that there must be a state based on Muslim legal philosophy. The aspects of Western life religion, in general, and Islam, in particular, should resist or reform. In the modern world one cannot do all the things which are demanded by ancient religions. Islam is a prime example of this. How can a law laid down fourteen centuries ago in the Middle East meet all the complex demands and pressures of modern technological civilization? Muslims dont think of it like this, no Muslim can accept the idea of a society without God. Muslims must submit to God, and that means they must not choose which of the revealed laws they will or will not keep. How can they judge which laws are more important than others? Only God knows the full reasoning behind them. The Muslim rules of behavior are split up into five categories. Firstly fard, or wajib, which are things which must be done. Secondly mandub, or mustahab, which are recommended actions. Thirdly mubah, which are actions to be decided by conscience. Next is makruh, which are disapproved actions. Finally haram, which are things never to be done. Most of modern life falls in the mubah section. Whatever is not actually forbidden is permitted, under the guidance of your conscience. If an action is harmful to yourself or anyone else, it cannot be recommended by a Muslim. If qiyas (principles worked out by analogy) and ijtihad (exercise of individuals opinion) are used properly, it remains always possible to offer fresh thinking on past decisions. Also it is possible to keep pace with the ever-changing world. Modernist Muslims feel that this is vital, and that the reason for the past stagnation of Islam was the over-emphasizing of and clinging to the decisions of the madhab imams of the five classical schools, and the neglecting of todays great scholars and thinkers. Other reformers are known as fundamentalists because they seek to keep nothing but the original teachings and reject all modern interpretations as innovations (bida). There are many Muslim laws which need to be resisted or reformed. Some of these are based on a Muslims manners, for there is a great emphasis on showing consideration to others. The laws say that Muslims must pay close attention to cleanliness. They are expected not to be even the slightest bit dirty at any times. Before and after sexual intercourse they are expected to wash. With the amount of washing it is said is needed, it would be very hard to do anything but wash in the modern day, with pollution. This therefore needs to be changed. There laws about table manners are fine, and most are the same as used all over the world. The way in which Muslim women dress is in a very modest way, thus many traditional costumes are not acceptable for they are to revealing. It is in fact a good idea for it stops Muslim women from flirting with, or attracting, men. This stops the chances of adultery. Passions, if not under control, can cause endless hurt and disturbance. Muslim men are expected to be modest too, and always to be clean and smart. Muslims have many food laws. In these there are listed some unlawful foods which are forbidden, these are called haram. These are any products made from a pig. Meat containing blood. Meat from an animal which dies of itself due to disease or other natural causes. Any flesh-eating animal. Any animal which has been strangled, beaten to death, killed by a fall, gored by another animal, or partially eaten by another animal. Or finally any animal sacrificed to idols. These laws greatly affect the Muslims ability to mix socially with non-Muslim neighbours, since nearly all meat in the West has been killed by electrocution or firing a bolt into an animals brain, and is therefore forbidden to Muslims. They should not buy meat from a market unless it is known to be halal (this is the Muslim word for meat which they can lawfully eat). Many Muslim children do not eat school dinners because of their food restrictions. Another of the Muslims problems is schooling. There are four main areas which these problems fall into. Immodest dress, especially in PE lessons; not separating boys and girls after the age of ten; sexual instruction in the classroom; and religious instruction that is either Christian or Jewish (i.e. Bible based) or Islam presented in an incorrect manner. There are several things which Muslims consider to be wrong with these. It is because of the lack of schools which provide the rules and facilities needed for Muslims, that many Muslim schools have been started. One of the major difficulties for a Muslim is there ability to find time to pray. Some employers are not sympathetic if workers want to break off for a few moments to pray. Often there is no private place for them to go, or facilities to wash with first. This makes life very hard for Muslims, and I therefore believe the laws about praying should be slightly more lenient. Overall one can see that Muslims confront many clashes between their laws and the way of the western civilization. For them to get on more easily in the modern world they must reform or resist some of their strict laws and traditions.

Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) Analysis

Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) Analysis Overview Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the next generation of protocol defined by InternetEngineering Task force (IETF) to replace the exiting IPv4 protocol. At present, the majority of Internet users are still using IPv4 protocol, and given that most of current networking applications and network equipment run in IPv4 environments, the migration from IPv4 to IPv6 cant be accomplished overnight. It is predictable that the migration will be a long-term process (it is forecasted that the process will take 10 20 years). During the migration, IPv4 and IPv6 will coexist in a same network. This migration process poses new challenges on the routers that are the core equipment in IP network. Traditional routers cant accommodate new future network with IPv4/v6 coexistence. The routers must be improved and upgraded so that they can support both IPv4 and IPv6.Given that the core router is very important and carries huge Internet traffics, it must be able to support IPv6 forwarding at wire rate. It means ASIC chip, but not software is used to support IPv6 packet processing. At the same time, it is very important that this support cant sacrifice any IPv4 performance. After all, most of current traffics is IPv4. The core router must expand to support IPv6 routing tables and needs to support IPv6 routing protocols, such as BGP4+, OSPFv3, ISISv6, RIPng and etc. It needs to support some migration strategy from IPv4 to IPv6, such as Tunnel, Dual Stack, Translation and etc. Same as many network technologies, successful deployment of IPv6 relies on the deployment of the operators IPv6 network. As one core component in IPv6 network, IPv6 core router is key to network building, applications, performance and stability. At present, mainstream router vendors like Cisco and Juniper announce that their routers can support IPv6 while some traditional IT equipment manufactures, especially those in Japan, think Internet upgrade caused by IPv6 will change the whole landscape of router market, which brings significant opportunities for them to enter router market. From 2000 to 2002, Hitachi, NEC and Fujitsu announced IPv6-capable core router to gain some market share in new Internet network. It must be admitted that IPv6 is still in the initial phase at present, which is reflected in the following aspects: most IPv6 network is in trial phase, the number of access users is low, carried IPv6 traffics cant be comparable to IPv4, the interoperability between IPv6 equipment still needs to be proved, and network engineers lack in experience in large-scale deployment and operation of IPv6 network. The lack of data and experience is one of important causes that make some operators lack in confidence in IPv6 network deployment. Many operators take wait-and-see attitudes. In order to prove IPv6 router (especially IPv6 core router), the support to IPv6, how are they performed and interoperated, provide a practical data basis for the operators to deploy IPv6 network and provide a reference for equipment manufactures to evaluate and improve their equipment, BII(Beijing Internet Institute) collaborate with 6TNet (IPv6 Telecom Trial Network) in China tested IPv6 core routers from 4 ven dors (Fujitsu, Hitachi, Juniper and NEC) in Beijing from October to December 2002. BII performed protocol conformance, performance and  interoperability tests. In these tests, we used the test instruments provided by Agilent and received strong technical support from Agilent. The test is not a comparative performance test in different router vendors. The purpose is to verify the feasibility of IPv6 deployment. With this test, the test team thinks that all SUT (system under test) has the ability to support commercial IPv6 network and provide basic IPv6 capabilities. They can support IPv6 routing protocols, support the forwarding of IPv6 datagram at wire rate and provide interoperability between them. From perspectives of pure technology, the test team thinks the products have been ready to deploy basic IPv6 core network.. Brief Descriptions of Test The requirements for hardware provided by the SUT (system under test) are as follows: IPv6-capable core router OC48 SM ports (both ports must be in different boards) Supports both FE ports and GE ports. The number of FE ports and GE ports is no less than 3 Finally, all vendors basically meet those requirements, although CX5210 provided by NEC doesnt support FE during the time of testing. The requirement for IPv6 capabilities provided by the SUT (system under test) include: support of IPv6 forwarding in hardware and support of related IPv6 routing protocols and migration strategy. Finally, all vendors meet our requirements as shown in the following table. Company IPv6 hardwareDual Stack RIPng OSPFv3 BGP4+ IPv6 over IPv4 forwarding Tunnel Fujitsu 9 9 9 9 9 9 Hitachi 9 9 9 9 9 9 Juniper 9 9 9 9 9 9 NEC 9 9 9 9 9 9 The SUT (system under test) models and OS versions are shown in the following table. Company Model Version Fujitsu Geostream R920 E10V02L03C44 Hitachi GR2000-20H S-9181-61 07-01 [ROUTE-OS6] Juniper M20 5.5R1.2 NEC CX5210 02.0(2e) 45.08.00 The test instruments we used in the test are as follows: Agilent Router Tester 900 Version: Router Tester 5.1,Build 11.15. Agilent QA Robot Version: Router Tester 5.3,Build 5.2 The IPv6 core router test is composed of three parts: Protocol conformance test, interoperability test and IPv6 performance test. Basic IPv6 Protocols and RIPng Basic IPv6 protocols include IPv6 Specification (RFC2460), ICMPv6 (RFC2463), Neighbor Discovery (RFC2461), Stateless Autoconfiguration (RFC2462), Path MTU Discovery (RFC1981), IPv6 address Architecture (RFC1884) and etc., which are basic capabilities provided by an IPv6 implementation. RIPng is defined by RFC2080 and is the extension and expansion of RIPv2. Its basic capabilities are same as RIPv2. The routing information exchanged by RIPng can carry IPv6 addresses and prefixes. RIPng runs on IPv6 network, uses multicasting address ff02::9 as destination to transfer routing information. RIPng is not compatible with RIPv2. RIP protocol is typically used in small networks and is not deployed in large networks because of its scalability and performance, which is same in IPv6 networks. The test does not include basic IPv6 protocols and RIPng because we think both capabilities are most basic and most preliminary capabilities that should be provided in an IPv6 router, these capabilities are implemented and interoperated very well in the routers from 4 vendors, and the 4 tested routers have been tested publicly or non-publicly several times in different occasions and provided good data. Therefore, we think it is unnecessary to make efforts to repeat these work and we skipped this test and focused on more challenged test items. BGP4+ Protocol Conformance Test At present, the external gateway protocol used in the IPv4 network is BGP4. Its basic protocols are defined in RFC1771. In order to carry IPv6 network information in BGP4 updates, IETF has defined a special property multi-protocol BGP (MP-BGP), also called IPv6 NLRI (Network Layer Reachability Information) to exchange IPv6 routing information, which is not a new version of BGP protocol, but an extension to BGP4. The extension is generally called BGP4+, which is compatible with BGP4. Refer to RFC2545 for its definition. Test Purpose and Used Standards: Purpose: To test the implementation of BGP4+ and conform with related standards for SUT (System Under Test). The following standards are referred in the test: Bates, T., Chandra, R., Katz, D. and Y. Rekhter, â€Å"Multiprotocol Extension for BGP-4†, RFC 2858, Jne 2000. Bates, T., Chandra, R., Chen, E., â€Å"BGP Route Reflection An Alternative to Full Mesh IBGP†, RFC2796, April 2000. Chandra, R. and J.Scudder, â€Å"Capabilities Advertisement with BGP-4†, RFC 2842, May 2000. Dupont, F. and P. Marques, â€Å"Use of BGP-4 Multiprotocol Extensions for IPv6 Inter-Domain Routing†, RFC 2545, March 1999. Rekhter, Y. and T. Li, â€Å"A Border Gateway Protocol 4 (BGP-4) †. Traina, P., McPherson, D., Scudder, J., â€Å"Autonomous System Confederations for BGP†, RFC3065, February 2001. Test Methods: All the tests are based on topology emulation. One test port of instrument firstly establishes network topology emulation, then executes pre-written scripts, interacts with the port of SUT, performs related BGP4+ protocol tests individually and each test generates Passed/Failed record. The tests can be divided into active tests and passive tests. Active test means the tester is used to verify the state machine of SUT and the correctness of message format while passive test means the tester is used to interfere with SUT using messages with errors. Test Topology Test instrument and SUT use two independent Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet connections. All BGP4+ runs on the Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet connections. The physical topology is as follows: The logical topology is as follows: Test Items and Descriptions of Test Results: The BGP4+ protocol conformance test involves in the BGP multi-protocol extension, setup and transfer of BGP4+ IBGP and EBGP sessions, ability to receive IPv6 route updates, BGP4+ next hop, starting point, MED, local preference, AS_PATH, atom aggregation, community name and various properties, the ability of SUT to correctly process these properties, BGP4+ route reflector capability, BGP4+ federation capability. These tests can only ensure implementation of BGP4+protocol in SUT comply with the standard defined by RFC, and cant ensure SUT fully and successfully deploy BGP4+ routes in commercial IPv6 network. The following diagram briefly describes the test results. Attached table 1 includes all test items, description and detailed results of BGP4+ conformance tests for 4 routers. The test items and descriptions are extracted from RFC2858, RFC2545, RFC2842, RFC2796, RFC3065 and draft-ietf-idr-bgp4-14.txt part. Model Failed test items Fujitsu GeoStream R920 2 Hitachi GR2000-20H 5 Juniper M20 1 NEC CX5210 3 Analysis of Test Results: Capabilities not supported Confederation Route reflector, Community Fujitsus GeoStreamR920 of current version does not support BGP4+ federation capability. In all BGP4+ test items it supported, the general performance is fairly good. What needs to be improved is only one item that is to support the migration of undefined property and handle interim duration. It is hoped to improve null interface which cant support next hop at present. Hitachis GR2000-20H of current version supports all test items, and is only product fully supporting BGP4+ protocols in the core routers from 3 Japanese companies. However, it needs to be improved in the following areas: handling next-hop property of IBGP in BGP4+ protocol, using AS_PATH properties to prevent from route loop, the ability of route reflector to detect ORIGINATOR_ID. At the same time, we found in the interoperability test that GR2000-20H cant establish non-physical direct-connection sessions with IBGP peering entities, which Hitachi needs to improve. It is hoped to add loopback address capability. Junipers M20 passes all tests except one item excellently. NECs CX5210 of current version doesnt support BGP4+ route reflector and community properties. In all BGP4+ test items it supported, the general performance is fairly good. However, it needs to be improved in handling BGP4+ federation AS_CONFED_SEQUENCE property. It is hoped to add null interface configuration. Interoperability Test As above mentioned, IPv6 is in initial phase of commercial deployment at present. A large amount of IPv6-capable network equipments and terminals are available. IPv6 network built by the operators doesnt only use the equipment provided by a vendor. In multi-vendor network environment, the interoperability between equipment is vital. The interoperability test is composed of BGP4+ interoperability test and OSPFv3 interoperability test. It should be noted that specific items in the interoperability test only cover some most common properties of BGP4+ and OSPFv3, and are not the interoperability tests of all properties of BGP4+ and OSPFv3. BGP4+ Interoperability Establish IBGP Sessions Test Descriptions: The test is to verify GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920,M20 and fully meshed iBGP connections that can be established. Reference: RFC1771, RFC2545 and RFC2858. Test steps: GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920, M20 and SUT are connected as shown in the following diagram. 4 routers are in a same autonomous domain and are interconnected using IBGP protocol to form a full-meshed IBGP connection. Test instrument and SUT are interconnected using EBGP connection. Because GR2000-20H doesnt support IBGP across-router Session connection, we use a FE link to connect GR2000-20H to M20 to form a fully-meshed connection. Test Results: We verified whether iBGP sessions were established between GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20, and it was found all connections were set up successfully. GR2000-20H CX5210 R920 M20 GR2000-20H N/A OK OK OK CX5210 OK N/A OK OK R920 OK OK N/A OK M20 OK OK OK N/A EBGP- Route Advertisement Test Descriptions: To verify GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20 can advertise routes properly in a fully meshed networks. References: RFC1771, RFC2545 and RFC2858. Test steps: Establish network topology according to previous test, establish eBGP connection between tester and SUT, send 100 EBGP routes from tester to SUT. Results: We verified whether GR2000-20H, CX5210 and R920 and M20 routing tables were correct, and it was found all routing tables were correct. GR2000-20H CX5210 R920 M20 GR2000-20H N/A OK OK OK CX5210 OK N/A OK OK R920 OK OK N/A OK M20 OK OK OK N/A Establish EBGP Sessions Test Descriptions: The test is to verify GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20 can establish a fully meshed eBGP connections. Reference: RFC1771, RFC2545 and RFC2858. Test steps: GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20 are connected as shown in the following diagram. Test Descriptions: We verified whether EBGP sessions were established between GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20, and it was found all connections were established successfully. GR2000-20H CX5210 R920 M20 GR2000-20H N/A OK OK OK CX5210 OK N/A OK OK R920 OK OK N/A OK M20 OK OK OK N/A EBGP Route Advertisement Test Descriptions: To verify GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20 can advertise EBGP routes properly. References: RFC1771, RFC2545 and RFC2858. Test steps: Establish network topology according to previous tests, send routes from each router to all other routers. Test Results: We verified whether GR2000-20H, CX5210 and R920 and M20 routing tables were correct, and it was found all routing tables were correct. GR2000-20H CX5210 R920, M20r GR2000-20H N/A OK OK OK CX5210 OK N/A OK OK R920 OK OK N/A OK M20 OK OK OK N/A OSPFv3 Interoperability OSPF protocols supporting IPv6 is OSPFv3. OSPFv3 routing mechanism is basically same as OSPFv2. However, OSPFv2 relies primarily on IPv4, while OSPFv3 makes many improvements in OSPFv2 and is not a simple extension, thus OSPFv3, whose corresponding protocol is RFC2740, runs on IPv6. For real world applications, many operators regard OSPFv3 as a brand new protocol, also its stability and maturity need to be further verified, so when IPv6 routing protocols are selected, it tends to use IS-ISv6 (draft-ietf-isis-ipv6-02.txt), which is only a simple extension to IS-ISv4 (RFC1195) (2 TLVs re-defined) and does not make changes fully. However, it is sure the opinion is not authoritative and need to be proved. Because of the limitations of test instrument, It is required for SUT to provide 100M Ethernet interface. As CX5210 does not support Ethernet interface at present, just M20, R920 and GR2000-20H were involved in the testing. However, it does not imply that CX5210 cant interoperate with other 3 routers and has any problems with functions implementation. In the test, GR2000-20H is called SUT1 in short, M20 is called SUT2, and R920 is called SUT3. Establish OSPF Connections DR Election Test Descriptions: In the initial status, set different OSPF priority levels for SUT1, SUT2, SUT3 and the test instrument (10, 8, 5, 0). Connect these equipments based on the network topology below. Verify SUT1, SUT2, SUT3 and test instrument to establish OSPFv3 adjacency and vote DR/BDR. After DR/BDR is established properly, put DR off the network, and check whether DR/BDR is established properly. Put off-net equipment on the network, and check whether DR/BDR is established properly. Change OSPF initialization priorities of SUT1, SUT2, SUT3 and test instrument, and implement new test from step 2. Repeat the tests for 4 times, and ensure each SUT and test instrument have one opportunity to be selected as DR and BDR under the intial status. During the test, all SUTs are in the same OSPF Area 0. Reference: RFC2740 Test Results: During the testing, all the OSPF adjacencys can be established between SUTs and DR, also BDR can be elected properly. After DR is off-line, BDR can be re-elected as DR and the one with sub-top priority will be BDR. When off-line equipment is on-line again, no re-electing process occurs. All test results comply with the requirements in related standards. Exchange LSA Database Test Descriptions: Test instrument simulates an internal network with 4 routers connected, and sends the routing information to SUT. Then verify the routing information received by SUT DR from test instruments will be sent to DR Other correctly. Same as the previous test item, firstly SUT1 is used as DR, then SUT2, and finally SUT3. Reference: RFC2740 Test Results: During the testing, OSPF adjacency can be established properly between all SUTs. DR receive LSA information from test instrument and properly send the information to DR Other, which can also receive and process LSA information properly. IPv6 Performance Test The major approach used for the performance testing was to send the IPv6 traffic with different packet sizes and specific QoS information, via SUT to the destination, and then by the tester measure the throughput, latency and packet loss of SUT in various topologies. For the IPv6 performance test, there are four vendors high-end IPv6 routers, with OC-48 POS ports on which throughput and latency will be measured, with IPv6 packet sizes of 64 bytes, 128bytes, 256 bytes, 512 bytes, 1024 bytes, 1480 bytes and 1500 bytes. The performance in various of circumstances were measured, including IPv4/IPv6 mixed traffics (IPv4 and IPv6 traffics with different ratio), IPv6 traffic with packet sizes mixtures, Sweep Packet Sizes. Also the maximum routing table entry supported and the performance on manually configured tunnels were verified. Most of the referred standards is extracted from RFC2544. At present, there are deficient applications for IPv6, and the number of users in the IPv6 network can not be compared to IPv4. The sum of maximum IPv6 of IX(Internet eXchage) traffics is less than dozens of Mbits/s. These traffics can be handled using a router refitted from a PC. Based on the circumstance, is it necessary to test the performance of OC48 ports ? Actually when the operators build IPv6 network and purchase IPv6 routers, todays IPv6 network is not under their consideration. Their networks should be able to deal with the changes and growth of IPv6 network next 5 7 years. In this sense, it is necessary for IPv6 core router to support the IPv6 traffic forwarding capacities at wire rate. Otherwise, what differences can be made between a real IPv6 router and a router refitted from a PC with installed BSD and Zebra ? The measurement of the number of routing table entry also meets the same situations. At present, therere around 300-400 entries in the IPv6 backbone router routing table, which cant compared to the huge number of IPv4 (110,000 ¼Ã‚ 130,000 routes). Secondly, IPv6 has drawn experience and lessons from IPv4 in design and address assignment. RIR only assigns the large block and fixed length IPv6 addresses to IPv6 operators, instead of the end users. To some extent, this can protect IPv6 routing tables from the explosive growth. The strict prefix filtering mechanism was set on BGP4+ routers by most of IPv6 network administrators and the router only allows minor prefixes, such as /16, /24, /28, /32, /35 and etc. However, the experience of IPv4 teach us a lesson- â€Å"Money Talks!†. In the fiercely competitive ages, it is very difficult for operators to reject users requirements. Under the conditions that IPv6 doesnt solve the problems of Multi-homing completely, it is possible that the network operators are required to broadcast users network prefixes into global IPv6 routing tables in order to achieve Multi-homing applications. So far RIR has begun to assign /48 ad dress segment to IPv6 of IX independently, while it is suggested IX doesnt broadcast the addresses. Thirdly, in many IPv6 networks, there are at least two IPv6 addresses segments, from 6BONE(3ffe::/16) and RIR(2001::/16) respectively, and maybe more prefixes will appear in the future. Fourthly, RIR cant ensure IPV6 addresses assigned to IPv6 operators are from a continuous address block. Current assignment policy indicates that /32 addresses of IPv6 assigned to operators can be continuously extended to /29. If new addresses are further required, they must be assigned to discontinuous address blocks and result in the growth of the number of routing tables. To sum up, the test team suggests that the number of IPv6 routing tables supported by the router should be no less than that of IPv4 routing tables, since it is very difficult to estimate the increasing number of routing tables of IPv6 core network right now. In current IPv6 networks, commercial IPv6 network and IPv6 trial network (6BONE) are interlaced without a explicit boundary between them. A packet from commercial IPv6 network may go through many IPv6 trial network before arriving at another IPv6 network. The network administrators of many trial networks are not regarded as a â€Å"operators†, but a â€Å"players† It is pretty unstable of their networks, with routers reset very frequently. In the meantime, the networks advertise global IPv6 routes to all peers, making their own IPv6 network to implement transit. It causes the instability of current IPv6 of BGP routes, and thus it is required the capabilities of IPv6 routers cover the flapping and convergence properly, which should be included in this test, however due to limited test time frame, it is a pity the test team has to give up these tests. The network topology used for the performance test is shown as following: Ideally, the test topology should be as following, so that the packet forwarding capability of the routers in real-world network environment is shown completely. Send one traffic from a source port of the tester, via multiple ports of the router to the destination ports of tester, measure the performance of the router. However as the vendors cant provide enough OC48 ports, the test team can only perform the test by simply sending packets from one port and receiving packets form another port. In this sense, this test environment cant simulate completely the performance of the router in the real-world network environment. The Measurement of Throughput and Latency with Different IPv6 Packets Sizes at OC-48 POS port Test Descriptions: To test the maximum IPv6 packet forwarding rate of SUT with zero packet loss with different IPv6 packet sizes. Test Methods: Send IPv6 packets, via SUT to the destination ports of the tester, which measures the packet rate of SUT according to the received IPv6 packets. Set the initial offered load to 2%, and If no packet loss occurs, increase the offered load to 100% and repeat the test. If packet loss occurs, decrease the offered load to (100%+2%)/2=51%, repeat the test again†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦In a binary search manner, continue to increase or decrease the offered load in subsequent iterations until the difference in offered load between successful and failed tests is less than the resolution for the test. This is the zero-loss throughput rate. Traffic forwarding mode: full duplex. Offered Packet type: IPv6; Offered Packet size (bytes): 64 128 256 512 1024 1480 1500 Test duration of each packet type(s): 5 Bandwidth resolution (%): 0.1 Line BER tolerance (10^_): -10 The results are as follows: Sustainable Throughput of OC-48 POS Port 105.00% 100.00% 95.00% 90.00% 85.00% 80.00% 75.00% 70.00% 65.00% 60.00% 55.00% 50.00% 64 128 256 512 1024 1480 1500 bytes bytes bytes bytes bytes bytes bytes Test Packets Size Average Latency (us) at Variable Test Packets Size 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Test Packets Size Hitachi NEC Fujistu Juniper Hitachi NEC Fujistu Juniper Note: About inherent latency of tester Before we perform tests, we must consider intrinsic latency of tester. The following table indicates inherent latency of tester for different test packet sizes when sending 100% offered load. Inherent latency of tester (100% offered load) Packet Size (bytes) 64 128 256 512 1024 1480 1500 Average Inherent 2.74 2.69 2.69 2.65 2.65 2.60 2.60 Latency (us) From the above, the inherent latency of tester under different packet sizes is about 2.7us. Compared to the tens of us of SUTs latency, there are not significant impacts on the test results. In addition, the impact of inherent latency is fair to these 4 SUTs. Forwarding Performance of IPv4/IPv6 Packets on OC48 Ports Test Descriptions: To verify the performance of SUT to forward IPv4/IPv6 packets in offered packets sizes. The test requires SUT to support IPv4/IPv6 dual protocol stacks. Test Methods: The tester sends IPv4 and IPv6 traffic simultaneously in full duplex configuration, via SUT to the destination port, measure the throughput and latency with various ratio of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic. Send traffic with 50% of IPv4 and 50% of IPv6 and 100% offered load first time. If packet loss occurs, decrease the offered load in 5% resolution until the difference in offered load between successful and failed tests is less than the resolution for the test. This is the zero-loss throughput rate. At the same time, measure the latency at maximum forwarding rate. Then change the ratio of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic to test again. Increase continuously the proportion of IPv6 traffic to simulate the change of traffic characteristics in the real-world network transition. Test Descriptions: Offered load (%): initial100% with 5% increment and final 0 Offered packet types: IPv6 Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic: 50:50—10:90 (IPv4:IPv6) Offered packet size (bytes): 62 512 1518 Test duration of each packet size(s): 5 The test results are as follows: Sustainable throughput of OC-48 POS port at packet size 64 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Sustainable Throughput of OC-48 POS Port at Packet Size 64 bytes with different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 105% 100% 95% 90% 85% Hitachi 80% NEC 75% Fujistu 70% Juniper 65% 60% 55% 50% 50/50 40/60 30/70 20/80 10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Sustainable throughput of OC-48 POS port at packet size 512 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Sustainable Throughput of OC-48 POS Port at Packet Size 512 bytes with different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 105% 100% 95% 90% 85% Hitachi 80% NEC 75% Fujistu 70% Juniper 65% 60% 55% 50% 50/50 40/60 30/70 20/80 10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Sustainable throughput of OC-48 POS port at packet size 1518 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Sustainable Throughput of OC-48 POS Port at Packet Size 1518 bytes with different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 105% 100% 95% 90% 85% Hitachi 80% NEC 75% Fujistu 70% Juniper 65% 60% 55% 50% 50/50 40/60 30/70 20/80 10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Average latency (us) at test packets size 64 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Average Latency (us) at Test Packets Size 64 bytes with Different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 50/50 40/6 30/70 20/80 10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Hitachi NEC Fujistu Juniper Average latency (us) at test packets size 512 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Average Latency (us) at Test Packets Size 512 bytes with Different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 50/50 40/60 30/70 20/80 10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Hitachi NEC Fujistu Juniper Average latency (us) at test packets size 1518 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Average Latency (us) at Test Packets Size 1518 bytes with Different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 50/50 40/60 30/70 20/80  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Hitachi NEC Fujistu Juniper IPv6 over IPv4 Configured Tunneling Performance of OC-48 POS Port Test Description: Tunneling technology is an effective means to connect separate IPv6 networks via IPv4 backbone. This item is to verify the performance of SUT when SUT encapsulates IPv6 data packets into IPv4 payload and forwards the packets. Test Method: The tester sends IPv6 data packets to SUT, and configures an IPv6 over IPv4 tunnel between SUT and the tester. Thus after SUT receives pure IPv6 packets from the tester, it will encapsulate it into IPv4 packet payload, and send IPv6 packets to destination over IPv4 network. The tester analyzes the packets forwared by the SUT at receiving end, calculates the throughput of SUT for different sizes of packets under the IPv6 over IPv4 configured tunnel. Test Results: IPv6 packet size: 512 Destination address of sending IPv6 data packets: 3FFE:0:0:4::2/64 Bandwidth range of sending IPv6 tra Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) Analysis Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) Analysis Overview Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the next generation of protocol defined by InternetEngineering Task force (IETF) to replace the exiting IPv4 protocol. At present, the majority of Internet users are still using IPv4 protocol, and given that most of current networking applications and network equipment run in IPv4 environments, the migration from IPv4 to IPv6 cant be accomplished overnight. It is predictable that the migration will be a long-term process (it is forecasted that the process will take 10 20 years). During the migration, IPv4 and IPv6 will coexist in a same network. This migration process poses new challenges on the routers that are the core equipment in IP network. Traditional routers cant accommodate new future network with IPv4/v6 coexistence. The routers must be improved and upgraded so that they can support both IPv4 and IPv6.Given that the core router is very important and carries huge Internet traffics, it must be able to support IPv6 forwarding at wire rate. It means ASIC chip, but not software is used to support IPv6 packet processing. At the same time, it is very important that this support cant sacrifice any IPv4 performance. After all, most of current traffics is IPv4. The core router must expand to support IPv6 routing tables and needs to support IPv6 routing protocols, such as BGP4+, OSPFv3, ISISv6, RIPng and etc. It needs to support some migration strategy from IPv4 to IPv6, such as Tunnel, Dual Stack, Translation and etc. Same as many network technologies, successful deployment of IPv6 relies on the deployment of the operators IPv6 network. As one core component in IPv6 network, IPv6 core router is key to network building, applications, performance and stability. At present, mainstream router vendors like Cisco and Juniper announce that their routers can support IPv6 while some traditional IT equipment manufactures, especially those in Japan, think Internet upgrade caused by IPv6 will change the whole landscape of router market, which brings significant opportunities for them to enter router market. From 2000 to 2002, Hitachi, NEC and Fujitsu announced IPv6-capable core router to gain some market share in new Internet network. It must be admitted that IPv6 is still in the initial phase at present, which is reflected in the following aspects: most IPv6 network is in trial phase, the number of access users is low, carried IPv6 traffics cant be comparable to IPv4, the interoperability between IPv6 equipment still needs to be proved, and network engineers lack in experience in large-scale deployment and operation of IPv6 network. The lack of data and experience is one of important causes that make some operators lack in confidence in IPv6 network deployment. Many operators take wait-and-see attitudes. In order to prove IPv6 router (especially IPv6 core router), the support to IPv6, how are they performed and interoperated, provide a practical data basis for the operators to deploy IPv6 network and provide a reference for equipment manufactures to evaluate and improve their equipment, BII(Beijing Internet Institute) collaborate with 6TNet (IPv6 Telecom Trial Network) in China tested IPv6 core routers from 4 ven dors (Fujitsu, Hitachi, Juniper and NEC) in Beijing from October to December 2002. BII performed protocol conformance, performance and  interoperability tests. In these tests, we used the test instruments provided by Agilent and received strong technical support from Agilent. The test is not a comparative performance test in different router vendors. The purpose is to verify the feasibility of IPv6 deployment. With this test, the test team thinks that all SUT (system under test) has the ability to support commercial IPv6 network and provide basic IPv6 capabilities. They can support IPv6 routing protocols, support the forwarding of IPv6 datagram at wire rate and provide interoperability between them. From perspectives of pure technology, the test team thinks the products have been ready to deploy basic IPv6 core network.. Brief Descriptions of Test The requirements for hardware provided by the SUT (system under test) are as follows: IPv6-capable core router OC48 SM ports (both ports must be in different boards) Supports both FE ports and GE ports. The number of FE ports and GE ports is no less than 3 Finally, all vendors basically meet those requirements, although CX5210 provided by NEC doesnt support FE during the time of testing. The requirement for IPv6 capabilities provided by the SUT (system under test) include: support of IPv6 forwarding in hardware and support of related IPv6 routing protocols and migration strategy. Finally, all vendors meet our requirements as shown in the following table. Company IPv6 hardwareDual Stack RIPng OSPFv3 BGP4+ IPv6 over IPv4 forwarding Tunnel Fujitsu 9 9 9 9 9 9 Hitachi 9 9 9 9 9 9 Juniper 9 9 9 9 9 9 NEC 9 9 9 9 9 9 The SUT (system under test) models and OS versions are shown in the following table. Company Model Version Fujitsu Geostream R920 E10V02L03C44 Hitachi GR2000-20H S-9181-61 07-01 [ROUTE-OS6] Juniper M20 5.5R1.2 NEC CX5210 02.0(2e) 45.08.00 The test instruments we used in the test are as follows: Agilent Router Tester 900 Version: Router Tester 5.1,Build 11.15. Agilent QA Robot Version: Router Tester 5.3,Build 5.2 The IPv6 core router test is composed of three parts: Protocol conformance test, interoperability test and IPv6 performance test. Basic IPv6 Protocols and RIPng Basic IPv6 protocols include IPv6 Specification (RFC2460), ICMPv6 (RFC2463), Neighbor Discovery (RFC2461), Stateless Autoconfiguration (RFC2462), Path MTU Discovery (RFC1981), IPv6 address Architecture (RFC1884) and etc., which are basic capabilities provided by an IPv6 implementation. RIPng is defined by RFC2080 and is the extension and expansion of RIPv2. Its basic capabilities are same as RIPv2. The routing information exchanged by RIPng can carry IPv6 addresses and prefixes. RIPng runs on IPv6 network, uses multicasting address ff02::9 as destination to transfer routing information. RIPng is not compatible with RIPv2. RIP protocol is typically used in small networks and is not deployed in large networks because of its scalability and performance, which is same in IPv6 networks. The test does not include basic IPv6 protocols and RIPng because we think both capabilities are most basic and most preliminary capabilities that should be provided in an IPv6 router, these capabilities are implemented and interoperated very well in the routers from 4 vendors, and the 4 tested routers have been tested publicly or non-publicly several times in different occasions and provided good data. Therefore, we think it is unnecessary to make efforts to repeat these work and we skipped this test and focused on more challenged test items. BGP4+ Protocol Conformance Test At present, the external gateway protocol used in the IPv4 network is BGP4. Its basic protocols are defined in RFC1771. In order to carry IPv6 network information in BGP4 updates, IETF has defined a special property multi-protocol BGP (MP-BGP), also called IPv6 NLRI (Network Layer Reachability Information) to exchange IPv6 routing information, which is not a new version of BGP protocol, but an extension to BGP4. The extension is generally called BGP4+, which is compatible with BGP4. Refer to RFC2545 for its definition. Test Purpose and Used Standards: Purpose: To test the implementation of BGP4+ and conform with related standards for SUT (System Under Test). The following standards are referred in the test: Bates, T., Chandra, R., Katz, D. and Y. Rekhter, â€Å"Multiprotocol Extension for BGP-4†, RFC 2858, Jne 2000. Bates, T., Chandra, R., Chen, E., â€Å"BGP Route Reflection An Alternative to Full Mesh IBGP†, RFC2796, April 2000. Chandra, R. and J.Scudder, â€Å"Capabilities Advertisement with BGP-4†, RFC 2842, May 2000. Dupont, F. and P. Marques, â€Å"Use of BGP-4 Multiprotocol Extensions for IPv6 Inter-Domain Routing†, RFC 2545, March 1999. Rekhter, Y. and T. Li, â€Å"A Border Gateway Protocol 4 (BGP-4) †. Traina, P., McPherson, D., Scudder, J., â€Å"Autonomous System Confederations for BGP†, RFC3065, February 2001. Test Methods: All the tests are based on topology emulation. One test port of instrument firstly establishes network topology emulation, then executes pre-written scripts, interacts with the port of SUT, performs related BGP4+ protocol tests individually and each test generates Passed/Failed record. The tests can be divided into active tests and passive tests. Active test means the tester is used to verify the state machine of SUT and the correctness of message format while passive test means the tester is used to interfere with SUT using messages with errors. Test Topology Test instrument and SUT use two independent Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet connections. All BGP4+ runs on the Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet connections. The physical topology is as follows: The logical topology is as follows: Test Items and Descriptions of Test Results: The BGP4+ protocol conformance test involves in the BGP multi-protocol extension, setup and transfer of BGP4+ IBGP and EBGP sessions, ability to receive IPv6 route updates, BGP4+ next hop, starting point, MED, local preference, AS_PATH, atom aggregation, community name and various properties, the ability of SUT to correctly process these properties, BGP4+ route reflector capability, BGP4+ federation capability. These tests can only ensure implementation of BGP4+protocol in SUT comply with the standard defined by RFC, and cant ensure SUT fully and successfully deploy BGP4+ routes in commercial IPv6 network. The following diagram briefly describes the test results. Attached table 1 includes all test items, description and detailed results of BGP4+ conformance tests for 4 routers. The test items and descriptions are extracted from RFC2858, RFC2545, RFC2842, RFC2796, RFC3065 and draft-ietf-idr-bgp4-14.txt part. Model Failed test items Fujitsu GeoStream R920 2 Hitachi GR2000-20H 5 Juniper M20 1 NEC CX5210 3 Analysis of Test Results: Capabilities not supported Confederation Route reflector, Community Fujitsus GeoStreamR920 of current version does not support BGP4+ federation capability. In all BGP4+ test items it supported, the general performance is fairly good. What needs to be improved is only one item that is to support the migration of undefined property and handle interim duration. It is hoped to improve null interface which cant support next hop at present. Hitachis GR2000-20H of current version supports all test items, and is only product fully supporting BGP4+ protocols in the core routers from 3 Japanese companies. However, it needs to be improved in the following areas: handling next-hop property of IBGP in BGP4+ protocol, using AS_PATH properties to prevent from route loop, the ability of route reflector to detect ORIGINATOR_ID. At the same time, we found in the interoperability test that GR2000-20H cant establish non-physical direct-connection sessions with IBGP peering entities, which Hitachi needs to improve. It is hoped to add loopback address capability. Junipers M20 passes all tests except one item excellently. NECs CX5210 of current version doesnt support BGP4+ route reflector and community properties. In all BGP4+ test items it supported, the general performance is fairly good. However, it needs to be improved in handling BGP4+ federation AS_CONFED_SEQUENCE property. It is hoped to add null interface configuration. Interoperability Test As above mentioned, IPv6 is in initial phase of commercial deployment at present. A large amount of IPv6-capable network equipments and terminals are available. IPv6 network built by the operators doesnt only use the equipment provided by a vendor. In multi-vendor network environment, the interoperability between equipment is vital. The interoperability test is composed of BGP4+ interoperability test and OSPFv3 interoperability test. It should be noted that specific items in the interoperability test only cover some most common properties of BGP4+ and OSPFv3, and are not the interoperability tests of all properties of BGP4+ and OSPFv3. BGP4+ Interoperability Establish IBGP Sessions Test Descriptions: The test is to verify GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920,M20 and fully meshed iBGP connections that can be established. Reference: RFC1771, RFC2545 and RFC2858. Test steps: GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920, M20 and SUT are connected as shown in the following diagram. 4 routers are in a same autonomous domain and are interconnected using IBGP protocol to form a full-meshed IBGP connection. Test instrument and SUT are interconnected using EBGP connection. Because GR2000-20H doesnt support IBGP across-router Session connection, we use a FE link to connect GR2000-20H to M20 to form a fully-meshed connection. Test Results: We verified whether iBGP sessions were established between GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20, and it was found all connections were set up successfully. GR2000-20H CX5210 R920 M20 GR2000-20H N/A OK OK OK CX5210 OK N/A OK OK R920 OK OK N/A OK M20 OK OK OK N/A EBGP- Route Advertisement Test Descriptions: To verify GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20 can advertise routes properly in a fully meshed networks. References: RFC1771, RFC2545 and RFC2858. Test steps: Establish network topology according to previous test, establish eBGP connection between tester and SUT, send 100 EBGP routes from tester to SUT. Results: We verified whether GR2000-20H, CX5210 and R920 and M20 routing tables were correct, and it was found all routing tables were correct. GR2000-20H CX5210 R920 M20 GR2000-20H N/A OK OK OK CX5210 OK N/A OK OK R920 OK OK N/A OK M20 OK OK OK N/A Establish EBGP Sessions Test Descriptions: The test is to verify GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20 can establish a fully meshed eBGP connections. Reference: RFC1771, RFC2545 and RFC2858. Test steps: GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20 are connected as shown in the following diagram. Test Descriptions: We verified whether EBGP sessions were established between GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20, and it was found all connections were established successfully. GR2000-20H CX5210 R920 M20 GR2000-20H N/A OK OK OK CX5210 OK N/A OK OK R920 OK OK N/A OK M20 OK OK OK N/A EBGP Route Advertisement Test Descriptions: To verify GR2000-20H, CX5210, R920 and M20 can advertise EBGP routes properly. References: RFC1771, RFC2545 and RFC2858. Test steps: Establish network topology according to previous tests, send routes from each router to all other routers. Test Results: We verified whether GR2000-20H, CX5210 and R920 and M20 routing tables were correct, and it was found all routing tables were correct. GR2000-20H CX5210 R920, M20r GR2000-20H N/A OK OK OK CX5210 OK N/A OK OK R920 OK OK N/A OK M20 OK OK OK N/A OSPFv3 Interoperability OSPF protocols supporting IPv6 is OSPFv3. OSPFv3 routing mechanism is basically same as OSPFv2. However, OSPFv2 relies primarily on IPv4, while OSPFv3 makes many improvements in OSPFv2 and is not a simple extension, thus OSPFv3, whose corresponding protocol is RFC2740, runs on IPv6. For real world applications, many operators regard OSPFv3 as a brand new protocol, also its stability and maturity need to be further verified, so when IPv6 routing protocols are selected, it tends to use IS-ISv6 (draft-ietf-isis-ipv6-02.txt), which is only a simple extension to IS-ISv4 (RFC1195) (2 TLVs re-defined) and does not make changes fully. However, it is sure the opinion is not authoritative and need to be proved. Because of the limitations of test instrument, It is required for SUT to provide 100M Ethernet interface. As CX5210 does not support Ethernet interface at present, just M20, R920 and GR2000-20H were involved in the testing. However, it does not imply that CX5210 cant interoperate with other 3 routers and has any problems with functions implementation. In the test, GR2000-20H is called SUT1 in short, M20 is called SUT2, and R920 is called SUT3. Establish OSPF Connections DR Election Test Descriptions: In the initial status, set different OSPF priority levels for SUT1, SUT2, SUT3 and the test instrument (10, 8, 5, 0). Connect these equipments based on the network topology below. Verify SUT1, SUT2, SUT3 and test instrument to establish OSPFv3 adjacency and vote DR/BDR. After DR/BDR is established properly, put DR off the network, and check whether DR/BDR is established properly. Put off-net equipment on the network, and check whether DR/BDR is established properly. Change OSPF initialization priorities of SUT1, SUT2, SUT3 and test instrument, and implement new test from step 2. Repeat the tests for 4 times, and ensure each SUT and test instrument have one opportunity to be selected as DR and BDR under the intial status. During the test, all SUTs are in the same OSPF Area 0. Reference: RFC2740 Test Results: During the testing, all the OSPF adjacencys can be established between SUTs and DR, also BDR can be elected properly. After DR is off-line, BDR can be re-elected as DR and the one with sub-top priority will be BDR. When off-line equipment is on-line again, no re-electing process occurs. All test results comply with the requirements in related standards. Exchange LSA Database Test Descriptions: Test instrument simulates an internal network with 4 routers connected, and sends the routing information to SUT. Then verify the routing information received by SUT DR from test instruments will be sent to DR Other correctly. Same as the previous test item, firstly SUT1 is used as DR, then SUT2, and finally SUT3. Reference: RFC2740 Test Results: During the testing, OSPF adjacency can be established properly between all SUTs. DR receive LSA information from test instrument and properly send the information to DR Other, which can also receive and process LSA information properly. IPv6 Performance Test The major approach used for the performance testing was to send the IPv6 traffic with different packet sizes and specific QoS information, via SUT to the destination, and then by the tester measure the throughput, latency and packet loss of SUT in various topologies. For the IPv6 performance test, there are four vendors high-end IPv6 routers, with OC-48 POS ports on which throughput and latency will be measured, with IPv6 packet sizes of 64 bytes, 128bytes, 256 bytes, 512 bytes, 1024 bytes, 1480 bytes and 1500 bytes. The performance in various of circumstances were measured, including IPv4/IPv6 mixed traffics (IPv4 and IPv6 traffics with different ratio), IPv6 traffic with packet sizes mixtures, Sweep Packet Sizes. Also the maximum routing table entry supported and the performance on manually configured tunnels were verified. Most of the referred standards is extracted from RFC2544. At present, there are deficient applications for IPv6, and the number of users in the IPv6 network can not be compared to IPv4. The sum of maximum IPv6 of IX(Internet eXchage) traffics is less than dozens of Mbits/s. These traffics can be handled using a router refitted from a PC. Based on the circumstance, is it necessary to test the performance of OC48 ports ? Actually when the operators build IPv6 network and purchase IPv6 routers, todays IPv6 network is not under their consideration. Their networks should be able to deal with the changes and growth of IPv6 network next 5 7 years. In this sense, it is necessary for IPv6 core router to support the IPv6 traffic forwarding capacities at wire rate. Otherwise, what differences can be made between a real IPv6 router and a router refitted from a PC with installed BSD and Zebra ? The measurement of the number of routing table entry also meets the same situations. At present, therere around 300-400 entries in the IPv6 backbone router routing table, which cant compared to the huge number of IPv4 (110,000 ¼Ã‚ 130,000 routes). Secondly, IPv6 has drawn experience and lessons from IPv4 in design and address assignment. RIR only assigns the large block and fixed length IPv6 addresses to IPv6 operators, instead of the end users. To some extent, this can protect IPv6 routing tables from the explosive growth. The strict prefix filtering mechanism was set on BGP4+ routers by most of IPv6 network administrators and the router only allows minor prefixes, such as /16, /24, /28, /32, /35 and etc. However, the experience of IPv4 teach us a lesson- â€Å"Money Talks!†. In the fiercely competitive ages, it is very difficult for operators to reject users requirements. Under the conditions that IPv6 doesnt solve the problems of Multi-homing completely, it is possible that the network operators are required to broadcast users network prefixes into global IPv6 routing tables in order to achieve Multi-homing applications. So far RIR has begun to assign /48 ad dress segment to IPv6 of IX independently, while it is suggested IX doesnt broadcast the addresses. Thirdly, in many IPv6 networks, there are at least two IPv6 addresses segments, from 6BONE(3ffe::/16) and RIR(2001::/16) respectively, and maybe more prefixes will appear in the future. Fourthly, RIR cant ensure IPV6 addresses assigned to IPv6 operators are from a continuous address block. Current assignment policy indicates that /32 addresses of IPv6 assigned to operators can be continuously extended to /29. If new addresses are further required, they must be assigned to discontinuous address blocks and result in the growth of the number of routing tables. To sum up, the test team suggests that the number of IPv6 routing tables supported by the router should be no less than that of IPv4 routing tables, since it is very difficult to estimate the increasing number of routing tables of IPv6 core network right now. In current IPv6 networks, commercial IPv6 network and IPv6 trial network (6BONE) are interlaced without a explicit boundary between them. A packet from commercial IPv6 network may go through many IPv6 trial network before arriving at another IPv6 network. The network administrators of many trial networks are not regarded as a â€Å"operators†, but a â€Å"players† It is pretty unstable of their networks, with routers reset very frequently. In the meantime, the networks advertise global IPv6 routes to all peers, making their own IPv6 network to implement transit. It causes the instability of current IPv6 of BGP routes, and thus it is required the capabilities of IPv6 routers cover the flapping and convergence properly, which should be included in this test, however due to limited test time frame, it is a pity the test team has to give up these tests. The network topology used for the performance test is shown as following: Ideally, the test topology should be as following, so that the packet forwarding capability of the routers in real-world network environment is shown completely. Send one traffic from a source port of the tester, via multiple ports of the router to the destination ports of tester, measure the performance of the router. However as the vendors cant provide enough OC48 ports, the test team can only perform the test by simply sending packets from one port and receiving packets form another port. In this sense, this test environment cant simulate completely the performance of the router in the real-world network environment. The Measurement of Throughput and Latency with Different IPv6 Packets Sizes at OC-48 POS port Test Descriptions: To test the maximum IPv6 packet forwarding rate of SUT with zero packet loss with different IPv6 packet sizes. Test Methods: Send IPv6 packets, via SUT to the destination ports of the tester, which measures the packet rate of SUT according to the received IPv6 packets. Set the initial offered load to 2%, and If no packet loss occurs, increase the offered load to 100% and repeat the test. If packet loss occurs, decrease the offered load to (100%+2%)/2=51%, repeat the test again†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦In a binary search manner, continue to increase or decrease the offered load in subsequent iterations until the difference in offered load between successful and failed tests is less than the resolution for the test. This is the zero-loss throughput rate. Traffic forwarding mode: full duplex. Offered Packet type: IPv6; Offered Packet size (bytes): 64 128 256 512 1024 1480 1500 Test duration of each packet type(s): 5 Bandwidth resolution (%): 0.1 Line BER tolerance (10^_): -10 The results are as follows: Sustainable Throughput of OC-48 POS Port 105.00% 100.00% 95.00% 90.00% 85.00% 80.00% 75.00% 70.00% 65.00% 60.00% 55.00% 50.00% 64 128 256 512 1024 1480 1500 bytes bytes bytes bytes bytes bytes bytes Test Packets Size Average Latency (us) at Variable Test Packets Size 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Test Packets Size Hitachi NEC Fujistu Juniper Hitachi NEC Fujistu Juniper Note: About inherent latency of tester Before we perform tests, we must consider intrinsic latency of tester. The following table indicates inherent latency of tester for different test packet sizes when sending 100% offered load. Inherent latency of tester (100% offered load) Packet Size (bytes) 64 128 256 512 1024 1480 1500 Average Inherent 2.74 2.69 2.69 2.65 2.65 2.60 2.60 Latency (us) From the above, the inherent latency of tester under different packet sizes is about 2.7us. Compared to the tens of us of SUTs latency, there are not significant impacts on the test results. In addition, the impact of inherent latency is fair to these 4 SUTs. Forwarding Performance of IPv4/IPv6 Packets on OC48 Ports Test Descriptions: To verify the performance of SUT to forward IPv4/IPv6 packets in offered packets sizes. The test requires SUT to support IPv4/IPv6 dual protocol stacks. Test Methods: The tester sends IPv4 and IPv6 traffic simultaneously in full duplex configuration, via SUT to the destination port, measure the throughput and latency with various ratio of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic. Send traffic with 50% of IPv4 and 50% of IPv6 and 100% offered load first time. If packet loss occurs, decrease the offered load in 5% resolution until the difference in offered load between successful and failed tests is less than the resolution for the test. This is the zero-loss throughput rate. At the same time, measure the latency at maximum forwarding rate. Then change the ratio of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic to test again. Increase continuously the proportion of IPv6 traffic to simulate the change of traffic characteristics in the real-world network transition. Test Descriptions: Offered load (%): initial100% with 5% increment and final 0 Offered packet types: IPv6 Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic: 50:50—10:90 (IPv4:IPv6) Offered packet size (bytes): 62 512 1518 Test duration of each packet size(s): 5 The test results are as follows: Sustainable throughput of OC-48 POS port at packet size 64 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Sustainable Throughput of OC-48 POS Port at Packet Size 64 bytes with different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 105% 100% 95% 90% 85% Hitachi 80% NEC 75% Fujistu 70% Juniper 65% 60% 55% 50% 50/50 40/60 30/70 20/80 10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Sustainable throughput of OC-48 POS port at packet size 512 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Sustainable Throughput of OC-48 POS Port at Packet Size 512 bytes with different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 105% 100% 95% 90% 85% Hitachi 80% NEC 75% Fujistu 70% Juniper 65% 60% 55% 50% 50/50 40/60 30/70 20/80 10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Sustainable throughput of OC-48 POS port at packet size 1518 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Sustainable Throughput of OC-48 POS Port at Packet Size 1518 bytes with different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 105% 100% 95% 90% 85% Hitachi 80% NEC 75% Fujistu 70% Juniper 65% 60% 55% 50% 50/50 40/60 30/70 20/80 10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Average latency (us) at test packets size 64 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Average Latency (us) at Test Packets Size 64 bytes with Different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 50/50 40/6 30/70 20/80 10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Hitachi NEC Fujistu Juniper Average latency (us) at test packets size 512 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Average Latency (us) at Test Packets Size 512 bytes with Different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 50/50 40/60 30/70 20/80 10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Hitachi NEC Fujistu Juniper Average latency (us) at test packets size 1518 bytes with different percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 traffic Average Latency (us) at Test Packets Size 1518 bytes with Different Percentage of IPv4 and IPv6 Traffic 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 50/50 40/60 30/70 20/80  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   10/90 IPv4/IPv6 Test Packets Percentage (IPv4/IPv6) Hitachi NEC Fujistu Juniper IPv6 over IPv4 Configured Tunneling Performance of OC-48 POS Port Test Description: Tunneling technology is an effective means to connect separate IPv6 networks via IPv4 backbone. This item is to verify the performance of SUT when SUT encapsulates IPv6 data packets into IPv4 payload and forwards the packets. Test Method: The tester sends IPv6 data packets to SUT, and configures an IPv6 over IPv4 tunnel between SUT and the tester. Thus after SUT receives pure IPv6 packets from the tester, it will encapsulate it into IPv4 packet payload, and send IPv6 packets to destination over IPv4 network. The tester analyzes the packets forwared by the SUT at receiving end, calculates the throughput of SUT for different sizes of packets under the IPv6 over IPv4 configured tunnel. Test Results: IPv6 packet size: 512 Destination address of sending IPv6 data packets: 3FFE:0:0:4::2/64 Bandwidth range of sending IPv6 tra